Effect of medication withdrawal on pain in Parkinson's disease patients - an observational study based on a sample of patients without antiparkinsonian medications

SUMMARY OBJECTIVES: To assess the effect of withdrawal of the antiparkinsonian drug regimen administration on patients with PD and its relation to pain. METHODS: The sample included 22 men and 12 women who were candidates for neurosurgery to control motor signs and symptoms treated with L-dopa as a drug, alone or in combination with others (Cholinergic Antagonists; Dopamine Agents). All of them were examined at two different moments, with and without medication, and analyzed for painful symptoms. The Hoehn and Yahr scale was used for functional staging of the disease. Pain intensity was assessed by using the numerical verbal scale. RESULTS: The mean pain intensity among those on medication {2.17±0.39 (SE)} was significantly lower than in the abstinence group {4.2±0.59 (SE), p=0.006, Wilcoxon}, which corresponded to the increase in the total functional staging score from 93 to 111, respectively. CONCLUSION: The interruption of the administration of specific medications in patients with Parkinson's disease caused, or increased the intensity of, painful discomfort correlated with the intensity of functional impairment. This effect was also observed in women, but it was statistically relevant only for men. The results suggest that pain may be a "red flag" that points to the need for a therapeutic drug review when its presence or worsening is detected.

Severo edema inducido por la terapia dopaminérgica en la enfermedad de Parkinson. Caso clínico / Severe leg edema associated with the use of dopaminergic drugs in Parkinson's disease. Report of one case

The main adverse effects of dopaminergic drugs used in Parkinson's disease are hypotension, somnolence, hallucinations and impulse control disorder. Less common is leg edema. We report on a 68-year-old male receiving levodopa and pramipexole consulting for severe leg edema lasting two years, whose etiology was not ascertained with multiple lab tests. This edema subsided substantially when pramipexole was discontinued and the dose of levodopa was increased to treat motor symptoms.

Polineuropatia periférica na doença de Parkinson: prevalência e fatores de risco em uma amostra na cidade de Campina Grande - PB / Peripheral neuropathy in Parkinson's disease: prevalence and risk factors in a sample of Campina Grande city - Paraíba

Polineuropatia periférica (PNP) tem sido descrita na doença de Parkinson idiopática (DP), porém a prevalência e os fatores de risco não estão bem definidos. Objetivo: Investigar a prevalência e os fatores de risco para PNP na DP, em comparação com a população geral. Método: Participaram 36 pacientes com DP recrutados no ambulatório de Neurologia do Hospital Universitário Alcides Carneiro (HUAC) da Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (UFCG), Paraíba, e 30 sujeitos controles. Todos os participantes foram submetidos a caracterização clínica da PNP, ao estudo de neurocondução (ENC) dos nervos peroneal e sural bilateral e as dosagens de vitamina B12, homocisteina, ácido metilmalônico e ácido fólico. A Escala Unificada de Avaliação da Doença de Parkinson - III e a de Hoehn-Yahr foram utilizadas na avaliação motora do grupo Parkinson (GP). Resultados: Sinais e sintomas neuropáticos foram mais frequentes no GP (61%). Alterações nos parâmetros do ENC foram observadas em 44,4% do GP e 26,7% do grupo controle, sendo a PNP confirmada em três pacientes e um controle. Análise de regressão revelou associação significativa entre os sintomas neuropáticos e a DP, sem associação com aspectos clínicos e bioquímicos. Conclusão: Pacientes com DP possuem maiores escores neuropáticos e maior prevalência de PNP que controles. Os dados sugerem a própria DP como fator de risco para o desenvolvimento da PNP, minimizando o papel da vitamina B12 e de seus metabólitos neste processo.(AU)

Peripheral neuropathy (PN) has been described in idiopathic Parkinson disease (PD) however the prevalence and the risk factors are not well established. Objective: To assess the prevalence of PN and the risk factors for neuropathy in PD against the general population. Method: Participated in the study 36 PD patients recruited from Neurology Outpatient Unit of Hospital Universitário Alcides Carneiro of the Federal University of Campina Grande, Paraíba, and 30 controls. All the participants were submitted to clinical characterization of PN, nerve conduction study (NCS) and biochemical dosages (B12 vitamin, homocysteine, methylmalonic acid and folic acid). Results: Neuropathic signs and symptoms were more frequent in PD (61%). Alterations in parameters of NCS were observed in 44.4% of Parkinson group and 26.7% of control group, and PN was confirmed in 3 PD patients and 1 control. Regression analyses showed a significant association between symptoms of PN and PD, without association with clinical and biochemical features. Conclusion: PD patients have higher neuropathic scores and frequency of PN than controls. Data suggests the PD by itself as a risk factor for development of PN, reducing the role of B12 vitamin and its metabolites in this process.(AU)

Bereitschaftspotential preceding eyelid blinks in Parkinson's disease / Potencial de Bereitschafts precedendo o piscamento ocular na doença de Parkinson

ABSTRACT The Bereitschaftspotential (BP) is a negative wave observed in EEG retrograde averaging, preceding a motor act. The objective was to study the BP preceding voluntary eyelid blinks in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients during off and on phases of levodopa. Methods Ten PD patients in stages 1 and 2 of the Hoehn & Yahr classification were compared to 18 healthy controls. Artifact-free EEG segments of two seconds preceding the onset of the blink potential were averaged and analyzed, and the statistical significance of the measured amplitudes were evaluated by analysis of variance models. Results The presence of a BP in the PD patients was demonstrated. The mean amplitudes at 0 ms were respectively 0.6 µV and 3.3 µV for the BP patients and the normal controls, respectively. Conclusions The BP amplitudes were significantly smaller in PD patients than normal participants. The amplitudes of the BP were not modified by levodopa.

RESUMO O Potencial de Bereitschafts (PB) é uma onda negativa observada retrogradamente no EEG precedendo um ato motor. Objetivo Estudar o PB precedendo o piscamento palpebral voluntário em pacientes com doença de Parkinson (DP) durante as fases off e on da levodopa. Foram comparados dez pacientes com DP nos estágios 1 e 2 de Hoehn & Yahr com 18 controles saudáveis. Os segmentos de EEG livres de artefatos 2 segundos antes do início do potencial foram calculados e analisados e a significância estatística das amplitudes foi medida por modelos de análise de variância. Resultados A presença de PB nos pacientes com DP foi demonstrada. As amplitudes médias a 0 ms foram respectivamente 0,6 μV e 3,3 μV para os pacientes com DP e controles respectivamente. Conclusões As amplitudes do PB foram significativamente menores nos pacientes com DP do que controles. As amplitudes do PB não foram modificadas pela levodopa.

Harbinger of storm: influence of Oliver Sacks on levodopa therapy in early 1970s / Arauto da tempestade: a influência de Oliver Sacks sobre a terapia com levodopa no início da década de 1970

ABSTRACT Most known by his literary ability, the words of the neurologist Oliver Sacks (1933-2015) also had an impact on scientific community about the role of levodopa on parkinsonisms. Different from the most authors and based on his experience described on the book “Awakenings”, he had a pessimistic opinion about levodopa, which was related on many articles written by himself and colleagues in early 1970s. We reviewed the scientific contribution of Oliver Sacks associated to levodopa therapy on parkinsonisms, and how he advised caution with its complications before the majority of physicians.

RESUMO Mais conhecido por sua habilidade literária, as palavras do neurologista Oliver Sacks (1933-2015) também tiveram um impacto sobre a comunidade científica a respeito do uso de levodopa nos parkinsonismos. Diferente da maioria dos autores e baseado em sua experiência única descrita no livro “Tempo de Despertar”, ele tinha uma opinião mais pessimista sobre a levodopa, que ficou relatada em uma série de artigos publicados por ele e colaboradores no início da década de 1970. Revisaremos a contribuição científica de Oliver Sacks referente ao tratamento dos parkinsonismos com levodopa, e como advertiu a cautela com as complicações decorrentes desta medicação antes da maioria dos médicos.

Increased sexual arousal in patients with movement disorders / Exacerbação do impulso sexual em pacientes com distúrbios do movimento

ABSTRACT Increased of sexual arousal (ISA) has been described in different neurological diseases. The purpose of this study was present a case series of ISA in patients with movement disorders. Method Fifteen patients with different forms of movement disorders (Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Tourette´s syndrome, spinocerebellar ataxia type 3), were evaluated in the Movement Disorders Unit of the Federal University of Paraná. Results Among Parkinson’s disease patients there were seven cases with different forms of ISA due to dopaminergic agonist use, levodopa abuse, and deep brain stimulation (DBS). In the group with hyperkinetic disorders, two patients with Huntington’s disease, two with Tourette’s syndrome, and four with spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 presented with ISA. Conclusions ISA in this group of patients had different etiologies, predominantly related to dopaminergic treatment or DBS in Parkinson’s disease, part of the background clinical picture in Huntington’s disease and Tourette’s syndrome, and probably associated with cultural aspects in patients with spinocerebellar ataxia type 3.

RESUMO A exacerbação do impulso sexual (EIS) tem sido descrita em diversas doenças neurológicas. O objetivo deste estudo foi apresentar uma série de casos de EIS em pacientes com distúrbios do movimento. Métodos Quinze pacientes com diferentes formas de distúrbios do movimento (Doença de Parkinson, doença de Huntington, síndrome de Tourette, ataxia espinocerebellar tipo 3), foram avaliados na Unidade de Distúrbios de Movimento-Universidade Federal do Paraná. Resultados Entre os pacientes com doença de Parkinson houve sete casos com diferentes formas de EIS devido ao uso de agonista dopaminérgico, abuso de levodopa ou estimulação cerebral profunda (DBS). No grupo com distúrbios hipercinéticos, dois pacientes com doença de Huntington, dois com síndrome de Tourette, e quatro com ataxia espinocerebelar tipo 3 apresentaram EIS. Conclusões EIS nesses pacientes decorreu de diferentes etiologias, relacionadas com o tratamento dopaminérgico ou DBS na doença de Parkinson, parte do quadro clinico na doença de Huntington e síndrome de Tourette, e provavelmente relacionado com aspectos culturais em pacientes com ataxia espinocerebelar tipo 3.

Lees' syndrome: a case series / Síndrome de Lees: uma série de casos

We report a case series of dopamine dysregulation syndrome, previously known as hedonistic homeostatic dysregulation in patients with Parkinson's disease on dopamine replacement therapies, now designated as Lees' syndrome.

Relatamos uma série de casos da síndrome de desregulação dopaminérgica, previamente conhecida como desregulação homeostática hedonística em pacientes com doença de Parkinson em uso de terapia de reposição dopaminérgica, e agora definida como síndrome de Lees.

Electrode Position and the Clinical Outcome after Bilateral Subthalamic Nucleus Stimulation

We compared the surgical outcome with electrode positions after bilateral subthalamic nucleus (STN) stimulation surgery for Parkinson's disease. Fifty-seven patients treated with bilateral STN stimulations were included in this study. Electrode positions were determined in the fused images of preoperative MRI and postoperative CT taken at six months after surgery. The patients were divided into three groups: group I, both electrodes in the STN; group II, only one electrode in the STN; group III, neither electrode in the STN. Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS), Hoehn and Yahr stage, and activities of daily living scores significantly improved at 6 and 12 months after STN stimulation in both group I and II. The off-time UPDRS III speech subscore significantly improved (1.6 +/- 0.7 at baseline vs 1.3 +/- 0.8 at 6 and 12 months, P < 0.01) with least L-dopa equivalent daily dose (LEDD) (844.6 +/- 364.1 mg/day at baseline; 279.4 +/- 274.6 mg/day at 6 months; and 276.0 +/- 301.6 mg/day at 12 months, P < 0.001) at 6 and 12 months after STN deep brain stimulation (DBS) in the group I. Our findings suggest that the better symptom relief including speech with a reduced LEDD is expected in the patients whose electrodes are accurately positioned in both STN.

Identification of wearing-off manifestations (reduction of levodopa effect) in Parkinson's disease using specific questionnaire and comparison of the results with routine ambulatory evaluations / Identificação de manifestações de wearing-off (redução do efeito da levodopa) em pacientes com doença de Parkinson utilizando questionário específico e comparação dos resultados com avaliações ambulatoriais de rotina

This study had the objective to verify if the presence of wearing-off phenomenon in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) could be better identified by the administration of the "Wearing-off Questionnaire Card" (QC). The participant patients were first evaluated by resident doctors in neurology and then invited to answer the QC for detection of motor and nonmotor wearing-off manifestations. Seventy and nine patients were enclosed in the study. The questionnaire revealed that 63 patients (80 percent) presented wearing-off, whereas the consultation by the resident doctors only identified 33 subjects (41 percent) with this phenomenon. The motor wearing-off manifestations were more frequent then the nonmotor. We conclude that the administration of the QC in patients with PD may be a useful tool for the diagnosis of wearing-off phenomena.

Este estudo teve como objetivo verificar se a presença do fenômeno wearing-off em pacientes com doença de Parkinson pode ser melhor identificada pela aplicação do cartão questionário wearing-off (QC). Os pacientes participantes foram avaliados pelos médicos residentes em neurologia e depois foram convidados a responder as questões do QC para detecção das manifestações motoras e não motoras do wearing-off. O número de pacientes estudados foi de 79. O questionário revelou que 63 pacientes (80 por cento) apresentaram wearing-off, enquanto que a consulta dos residentes identificou apenas 33 indivíduos (41 por cento) com este fenômeno. As manifestações motoras foram mais freqüentes do que as não motoras. Nós concluímos que a aplicação do QC em pacientes com doença de Parkinson pode ser uma ferramenta útil para o diagnostico do fenômeno wearing-off.

[Spinophilin gene expression in 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of parkinson's disease and L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia]

The hypothesis that alterations of proteins that mediate dopaminergic signal transduction might be involved in the altered dopaminergic receptors in Parkinson's disease and L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia was explored. We measured transcript expression of spinophilin, a protein enriched in.dendritic spines that modulates excitatory neurotransmission and involved in dopamine [DA] signaling in the striatum and cerebral cortex of 6- hydroxydopamine [6-OHDA-lesioned rats model of Parkinson's disease and following chronic treatment with L-DOPA which induces dyskinesia [L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia LID]. The transcript encoding spinophilin, was decreased by 27% and 18% respectively in, lesioned and unlesioned sides of the rostral striatum. Acute and chronic treatment with L- DOPA produced an increase in transcript levels of spinophilin in the rostral and caudal striatum, and somatosensory cortex but not in the motor cortex. These alterations in spinophilin and mRNA levels in 6-OHDA-Iesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease and L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia provide further evidence for the role of spinophilin in the neural mechanisms underlying altered dopaminergic receptors in PD and LID

effect of agents acting on NMDA and dopamine receptors on the responses of phrenic nerve-diaphram preparations from aged rats

Alzheimer's Dementia [AD] and Parkinsonism are common in geriatric patients. The skeletal muscles are important in the proper function of aging animals and humans. This study focuses on the influence of memantine [used for moderate to severe AD] and levodopalcarbidopa [LDICD] [a corner stone in the treatment of Parkinsonism] on responses of isolated phrenic nerve-diaphragms [IPNDs] of aged male rats. From 100 aged male albino rats twenty were untreated to study in vitro effects of memantine and LD/CD on 1PNDs. Eighty rats were divided into: Group-I [Control], Group II [oral meman tine, 1 .5mg/KgId], Group-Ill, [twice daily intraperitoneal LD/CD, 25/2.5mg/kg], Group-lV [both drugs]. After three weeks of treatment, animals were sacrificed; ten rats from each group were used to harvest IPNDs to study the effect of alIamine; 10 rats were used to measure nAchR [nicotinic acetyicholine receptor] alpha subunit mRNA by PCR. Heights of indirectly elicited contractions: 63.1 +/- 4, 6. 41.5 +/- 4.5, 70.6 +/- 4.7, 53.9 +/- 3.3mm for Groups I through IV respectively, all differences were statistically significant K0.05]. Memantine treatment caused a leftward shift of sallamine log-concentration-response curve, LD/CD caused ri.htward shift. Reversal of neuromuscular block required ier neostigmine concentrations in the memantine group it smaller concentrations in the LD/CD group. In Vitro m.antine inhibited diaphragmatic responses to indirect stam1ation. Values of nAchR alpha subunit mRNA [micro g/dl]: 1 +/- f116 [control], 0.13 +/- 0.11 [memnatine], 2.3 +/- 0.94 [LD/CD], 1.18 +/- 0.71 [both drugs] [p<0.05]. Memnatine inhibits neuromuscular transmission in vitro and with in vivo treatment. LD/CD treatment rtaaces neuiomuscular transmission. Clinical implications a1 further investigation

Use of clozapine in Brazilian patients with Parkinson's disease / Uso da clozapina em pacientes brasileiros com doença de Parkinson

Clozapine has been used as an attempt to manage levodopa complications in advanced Parkinson's disease (PD). To investigate the use of clozapine in this context in a Brazilian sample, a retrospective chart review was carried out at the Movement Disorders Clinic from the Federal University of Minas Gerais. This study enrolled 43 PD patients who used or were in use of clozapine. Patients had a mean age of 64 years and a mean UPDRS score of 55. Clozapine was indicated for dyskinesias in 17 patients, for psychosis in 15 and for both reasons in 11. The average maximum dose was 70 mg/day. Twenty six patients used it for a mean of 3.5 years. Twenty nine presented an improvement of their condition, 9 remained clinically stable. Twenty subjects interrupted the use of clozapine, being 9 due to adverse effects. Clozapine may play a role in the management of motor and psychiatric complications in PD, but it is associated with low tolerability.

A clozapina vem sendo utilizada na doença de Parkinson (DP) avançada para controle das complicações causadas pela levodopa. Com o objetivo de investigar o emprego da clozapina nesse contexto em amostra de pacientes brasileiros, um estudo retrospectivo foi realizado no Ambulatório de Distúrbios do Movimento da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Este estudo incluiu 43 pacientes que usaram clozapina, apresentando idade média de 64 anos e uma média de 55 pontos no UPDRS. A clozapina foi indicada para discinesias em 17 pacientes, para psicose em 15 e para ambos os motivos em 11. A média da dose máxima empregada foi de cerca de 70 mg/dia. Vinte e seis pacientes usaram a medicação por uma média de 3,5 anos. Houve melhora do quadro clínico em 29 pacientes, 9 permaneceram com quadro clínico estático. O tratamento foi interrompido em 20 pessoas, sendo 9 por efeitos adversos. Apesar de a clozapina ser eficaz no controle das complicações motoras e psiquiátricas na DP, seu uso está associado com baixa tolerabilidade.

Discinesias induzidas por drogas / Drug-induced dyskinesias

Baseados em extensa revisão da literatura, os autores analisam o conceito, a fenomenologia, a fisiopatologia e o tratamento atual dos diversos movimentos anormais induzidos por drogas. Dentre estes são abordados a acatisia, o balismo, a distonia, a mioclonia, o tique, o tremor e o parkinsonismo, enfatizando, ao final, as discinesias tardias e as induzidas pela levodopa.

Quality of life scale in parkinson's disease PDQ-39 - (Brazilian Portuguese version) to assess patients with and without levodopa motor fluctuation

Quality of life (QoL) is an important treatment outcome indicator in Parkinson's disease (PD). The aim of this study is to assess the usefulness of the Parkinson's disease questionnaire - PDQ-39 (Brazilian Portuguese Version) in measuring QoL of PD patients with or without motor fluctuations. Fifty-six PD patients with mean disease duration of 7.4 years were assessed and 41 of them (73.3 percent) had motor fluctuations. The PDQ-39 has eight dimensions ranging from 0 to 100; being the higher the score, the worse the QoL. Comparing groups with and without motor fluctuations showed that the dimensions mobility, activities of daily living (ADL), communication and bodily discomfort scored higher in the fluctuating group. There was a tendency to see that the higher the Hoehn and Yahr (HY) scale stages, the higher the PDQ-39 scores. Patients suffering from the disease for more than five years had worse PDQ-39 scores only in the items ADL and communication, when compared with those with the disease for < 5 years. The PDQ-39 is an instrument that detects decrease in QoL of PD patients and the presence of motor fluctuations predicts QoL reduction.

A qualidade de vida (QdV) é um item importante para se mensurar o sucesso do tratamento na doença de Parkinson (DP). O objetivo deste estudo foi o de avaliar a utilidade do questionário sobre a doença de Parkinson - PDQ-39 (versão em língua portuguesa falada no Brasil) para mensurar a QdV dos pacientes parkinsonianos com e sem flutuação motora. Nós avaliamos 56 pacientes com DP com tempo médio da doença de 7,4 anos, e destes 41 (73,3 por cento) apresentavam flutuação motora. A PDQ-39 tem oito domínios que variam de 0 a 100 e quanto maior o escore pior a QdV. A comparação dos grupos de pacientes com e sem flutuação motora mostrou que os domínios: mobilidade, atividades de vida diária, comunicação e desconforto corporal tinham escores maiores nos flutuadores. Quanto maiores os estágios de Hoehn e Yahr (HY) da doença, maiores os escores da PDQ-39. Pacientes com mais de 5 anos de evolução da doença mostraram escores piores da PDQ39 apenas nos itens atividades da vida diária e comunicação se comparados a pacientes com 5 anos ou menos de doença. A PDQ-39 é um instrumento capaz de detectar declínio da QdV de pacientes com DP e a presença de flutuação motora é um preditor para redução na QdV.

Early-onset Parkinson's disease and depression

Patients with ParkinsonÆs disease (PD) in whom symptoms start before the age of 45 years (EOPD) present different clinical characteristics from those with the late-onset form of the disease. The incidence of depression is believed to be greater in patients with EOPD than with the late-onset form of the disease, although there is no risk factor or marker for depression in patients with PD. We studied 45 patients with EOPD to define the frequency of depression and to identify possible differences between the groups with and without depression. Depression was diagnosed in 16 (35.5 percent) of the patients, a higher incidence than in the population at large but similar to the figure for late-onset Parkinson disease; 8 (50 percent) of the patients had mild depression, 4 (25 percent) moderate depression and 4 (25 percent) were in remission. There was no relationship between depression and any of the clinical characteristics of the disease, although the EOPD patients with depression presented earlier levodopa-related complications and were more affected on the Hoehn-Yahr, UPDRS and Schwab-England scales.

Os pacientes com doença de Parkinson (DP) cujo início dos sintomas ocorre até os 45 anos (DPIP), apresentam características clínicas que a diferem da doença de início tardio. Estudos têm sugerido que pacientes com DPIP têm maior incidência de depressão quando comparados aos de início tardio, mas sem definição de algum marcador específico da doença para depressão. Estudamos 45 pacientes com DPIP, para definir a freqüência da depressão e verificar possíveis diferenças entre os grupos com e sem depressão. A depressão foi diagnosticada em 16 (35.5 por cento) pacientes estando acima da média da população geral, porém semelhante aos índices relatados pelos estudos de pacientes com DP de início tardio; 8 (50 por cento) pacientes tinham depressão leve, 4 (25 por cento) moderada e 4 (25 por cento) estavam em remissão.Não houve relação da depressão com nenhuma das características clínicas da doença, embora apresentem complicações mais precoces da levodopaterapia, e sejam mais afetados nas escalas de Hoehn-Yahr, UPDRS e Schwab-England.

Dopamine dysregulation syndrome in Parkinson's disease: case report / Síndrome de desregulação dopaminérgica na doença de Parkinson: relato de caso

We report a 67-year-old man with Parkinson's disease for 9 years who developed compulsive use of levodopa. This phenomenon is the main feature of the dopamine dysregulation syndrome. Other related symptoms presented by our patient were mood fluctuation and increased writing activity suggestive of punding.

Relatamos sobre um homem de 67 anos de idade com doença de Parkinson por 9 anos e que desenvolveu uso compulsivo de levodopa. Esse fenômeno é a principal característica da síndrome de desregulação dopaminérgica. Outros sintomas apresentados pelo paciente foram flutuações do humor e atividade de escrita aumentada, comportamento este sugestivo de punding.

Levodopa en la enfermedad de Parkinson: ¿Qué hemos aprendido? / Levodopa for Parkinson's disease: What have we learned?

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease in the world. Dopamine deficit is the cornerstone of its clinical manifestations. Levodopa, the main treatment for this condition, was first used for PD more than 40 years ago and today it still is the most powerful treatment for this disease. In recent years many advances have been made for understanding of the neurochemical mechanisms of this drug. Furthermore, new insights about the genesis of motor complications secondary to its use are known, specially related with the mode of its administration. This article updates the pharmacology of levodopa and its implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of PD. The new available presentations of levodopa are also reviewed. The implications of these advances for the treatment of this disease are commented.